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Smith's Bible Dictionary
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Wages
The earliest mention of wages is of a recompense, not in money,
but in kind, to Jacob from Laban. (Genesis 29:15,20; 30:28;
31:7,8,41) In Egypt money payments by way of wages were in use,
but the terms cannot now be ascertained. (Exodus 2:9) The only
mention of the rate of wages in Scripture is found in the
parable of the householder and the vineyard, (Matthew 20:2)
where the laborer's wages was set at one denarius per day,
probably 15 to 17 cents, a sum which may be fairly taken as
equivalent to the denarius, and to the usual pay of a soldier
(ten asses per diem) in the later days of the Roman republic.
Tac. Ann. i. 17; Polyb. vi. 39. In earlier times it is probable
that the rate was lower; but it is likely that laborers, and
also soldiers, were supplied with provisions. The law was very
strict in requiring daily payment of wages. (Leviticus 19:13;
24:14,15) The employer who refused to give his-laborers
sufficient victuals is censured (Job 22:11) and the iniquity of
withholding wages is denounced. (Jeremiah 22:13; Malachi 3:5;
James 6:4)
Wagon
The Oriental wagon, or arabah, is a vehicle composed of two or
three planks fixed on two solid circular blocks of wood from
two to five feet in diameter, which serve as wheels. For the
conveyance of passengers, mattresses or clothes are laid in the
bottom and the vehicle is drawn by buffaloes or oxen.
[[1278]Cart and [1279]Chariot]
Walls
Only a few points need be noticed.
+ The practice common in Palestine of carrying foundations down
to the solid rock, as in the case of the temple, with
structures intended to be permanent. (Luke 6:48)
+ A feature of some parts of Solomon's buildings, as described
by Josephus, corresponds remarkably to the method adopted at
Nineveh of incrusting or veneering a wall of brick or stone
with slabs of a more costly material, as marble or alabaster.
+ Another use of walls in Palestine is to support mountain
roads Or terraces formed on the sides of hills for purposes
of cultivation.
+ The "path of the vineyards," (Numbers 22:24) is a pathway
through vineyards, with walls on each side.
Wandering In The Wilderness
[[1280]Wilderness Of The Wandering OF THE WANDERING]
War
The most important topic in connection with war is the
formation of the army which is destined to carry it on.
[[1281]Army] In (1 Kings 9:22) at a period (Solomon's reign)
when the organization of the army was complete, we have
apparently a list of the various gradations of rank in the
service, as follows:
+ "Men of war" = privates ;
+ "servants," the lowest rank of officers--lieutenants ;
+ "princes" = captains ;
+ "captains," perhaps = staff officers ;
+ "rulers of the chariots and his horsemen" = cavalry officers
. Formal proclamations of war were not interchanged between
the belligerents. Before entering the enemy's district spies
were seat to ascertain the character of the country and the
preparations of its inhabitants for resistance. (Numbers
13:17; Joshua 2:1; Judges 7:10; 1 Samuel 26:4) The combat
assumed the form of a number of hand-to-hand contests; hence
the high value attached to fleetness of foot and strength of
arm. (2 Samuel 1:23; 2:18; 1 Chronicles 12:8) At the same
time various strategic devices were practiced, such as the
ambuscade, (Joshua 8:2,12; Judges 20:36) surprise, (Judges
7:16) or circumvention. (2 Samuel 5:23) Another mode of
settling the dispute was by the selection of champions, (1
Samuel 17; 2 Samuel 2:14) who were spurred on to exertion by
the offer of high reward. (1 Samuel 17:25; 18:25; 2 Samuel
18:11; 1 Chronicles 11:6) The contest having been decided,
the conquerors were recalled from the pursuit by the sound of
a trumpet. (2 Samuel 2:28; 18:16; 20:22) The siege of a town
or fortress was conducted in the following manner: A line of
circumvallation was drawn round the place, (Ezekiel 4:2;
Micah 5:1) constructed out of the trees found in the
neighborhood, (20:20) together with earth and any other
materials at hand. This line not only cut off the besieged
from the surrounding country, but also served as a base of
operations for the besiegers. The next step was to throw out
from this line one or more mounds or "banks" in the direction
of the city, (2 Samuel 20:15; 2 Kings 19:32; Isaiah 37:33)
which were gradually increased in height until they were
about half as high as the city wall. On this mound or bank
towers were erected, (2 Kings 25:1; Jeremiah 52:4; Ezekiel
4:2; 17:17; 21:22; 26:8) whence the slingers and archers
might attack with effect. Catapults were prepared for hurling
large darts and stones; and the crow, a long spar, with iron
claws at one end and ropes at the other, to pull down stones
or men from the top of the wall. Battering-rams, (Ezekiel
4:2; 21:22) were brought up to the walls by means of the
bank, and scaling-ladders might also be placed on it. The
treatment of the conquered was extremely severe in ancient
times. The bodies of the soldiers killed in action were
plundered, (1 Samuel 31:8) 2 Macc 8:27; the survivors were
either killed in some savage manner, (Judges 9:45; 2 Samuel
12:31; 2 Chronicles 25:12) mutilated, (Judges 9:45; 2 Samuel
12:31; 2 Chronicles 25:12) mutilated, (Judges 1:6; 1 Samuel
11:2) or carried into captivity. (Numbers 31:26)
Washing The Hands And Feet
As knives and forks were not used in the East, in Scripture
times, in eating, it was necessary that the hand, which was
thrust into the common dish, should be scrupulously clean; and
again, as sandals were ineffectual against the dust and heat of
the climate, washing the feet on entering a house was an act
both of respect to the company and of refreshment to the
traveller. The former of these usages was transformed by the
Pharisees of the New Testament age into a matter of ritual
observance, (Mark 7:3) and special rules were laid down as to
the time and manner of its performance. Washing the feet did
not rise to the dignity of a ritual observance except in
connection with the services of the sanctuary. (Exodus
30:19,21) It held a high place, however, among the rites of
hospitality. Immediately that a guest presented himself at the
tent door it was usual to offer the necessary materials for
washing the feet. (Genesis 18:4; 19:2; 24:32; 43:24; Judges
19:21) It was a yet more complimentary act, betokening equally
humility and affection, if the host himself performed the
office for his guest. (1 Samuel 25:41; Luke 7:38,44; John
13:5-14; 1 Timothy 5:10) Such a token of hospitality is still
occasionally exhibited in the East.
Watches Of Night
The Jews, like the Greeks and Romans, divided the night into
military watches instead of hours, each watch representing the
period for which sentinels or pickets remained on duty. The
proper Jewish reckoning recognized only three such watches,
entitled the first or "beginning of the watches," (Lamentations
2:19) the middle watch, (Judges 7:19) and the morning watch.
(Exodus 14:24; 1 Samuel 11:11) These would last respectively
from sunset to 10 P.M.; from 10 P.M. to 2 A.M.; and from 2 A.M.
to sunrise. After the establishment of the Roman supremacy, the
number of watches was increased to four, which were described
either according to their numerical order, as in the case of
the "fourth watch," (Matthew 14:25) or by the terms "even,"
"midnight," "cock-crowing" and "morning." (Mark 13:35) These
terminated respectively at 9 P.M., midnight, 3 A.M. and 6 A.M.
Water Of Jealousy
(Numbers 5:11-31) The ritual prescribed consisted in the
husband's bringing before the priest the woman suspected of
infidelity, and the essential part of it is unquestionably the
oath to which the "water" was subsidiary, symbolical and
ministerial. With her he was to bring an offering of barley
meal. As she stood holding the offering, so the priest stood
holding till earthen vessel of holy water mixed with the dust
from the floor of the sanctuary, and, declaring her free from
all evil consequences if innocent, solemnly devoted her in the
name of Jehovah to be "a curse and an oath among her people" if
guilty. He then "wrote these curses in a book and blotted them
out with the bitter water." and having thrown the handful of
meal on the altar, "caused the woman to drink" the potion thus
drugged, she moreover answering to the words of his
imprecation, "Amen, amen." Josephus adds, if the suspicion was
unfounded, she obtained conception; if true, she died
infamously, (This was entirely different from most trials of
this kind, for the bitter water the woman must drink was
harmless in itself, and only by a direct act of God could it
injure her it guilty while in most heathen trials the suspected
party must take poison, or suffer that which only a miracle
would save them from if they were innocent.--ED.)
Water Of Separation
[[1282]Purification]
Wave Offering
This rite, together with that of "heaving" or "raising" the
offering was an inseparable accompaniment of peace offerings.
In such the right shoulder, considered the choicest part of the
victim, was to be ("heaved," and viewed as holy to the Lord,
only eaten therefore by the priest: the breast was to be
"waved," and eaten by the worshipper. The scriptural notices of
these rites are to be found in (Exodus 29:24,28; Leviticus
7:30,34; 8:27; 9:21; 10:14,15; 23:10,15,20; Numbers 6:20;
18:11,18,26-29) etc. In conjecturing the meaning of this rite,
regard must be had that it was the accompaniment of peace
offerings, which were witnesses to a ratified covenant--an
established communion between God and man.
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Weapons
[[1283]Arms, Armor]
Weasel
(choled) occurs only in (Leviticus 11:29) in the list of
unclean animals; but the Hebrew word ought more probably to be
translated "mole." Moles are common in Palestine.
Weaving
The art of weaving appears to be coeval with the first dawning
of civilization. We find it practiced with great skill by the
Egyptians at a very early period; The vestures of fine linen"
such as Joseph wore, (Genesis 41:42) were the product of
Egyptian looms. The Israelites were probably acquainted with
the process before their sojourn in Egypt; but it was
undoubtedly there that they attained the proficiency which
enabled them to execute the hangings of the tabernacle, (Exodus
35:35; 1 Chronicles 4:21) and other artistic textures. The
Egyptian loom was usually upright, and the weaver stood at his
work. The cloth was fixed sometimes at the top, sometimes at
the bottom. The modern Arabs use a procumbent loom, raised
above the ground by short legs. The textures produced by the
Jewish weavers were very various. The coarser kinds, such
tent-cloth, sack-cloth and the "hairy garments" of the poor,
were made goat's or camel's hair. (Exodus 26:7; Matthew 3:4)
Wool was extensively used for ordinary clothing, (Leviticus
13:47; Proverbs 27:26; 31:13; Ezekiel 27:18) while for finer
work flax was used, varying in quality, and producing the
different textures described in the Bible as "linen" and "fine
linen." The mixture of wool and flax in cloth intended for a
garment was interdicted. (Leviticus 19:19; 22:11)
Wedding
[[1284]Marriage]
Week
There can be no doubt about the great antiquity of measuring
time by a period of seven days. (Genesis 8:10; 29:27) The
origin of this division of time is a matter which has given
birth to much speculation. Its antiquity is so great its
observance so widespread, and it occupies so important a place
in sacred things, that it must probably be thrown back as far
as the creation of man. The week and the Sabbath are thus as
old as man himself. A purely theological ground is thus
established for the week. They who embrace this view support it
by a reference to the six days' creation and the divine rest on
the seventh. 1st. That the week rests on a theological ground
may be cheerfully acknowledged by both sides; but nothing is
determined by such acknowledgment as to the original cause of
adopting this division of time. Whether the week gave its
sacredness to the number seven, or whether the ascendancy of
that number helped to determine the dimensions of the week, it
is impossible to say. 2d. The weekly division was adopted by
all the Shemitic races, and, in the later period of their
history at least, by the Egyptians. On the other hand, there is
no reason for thinking the week known till a late period to
either Greeks or Romans. So far from the week being a division
of time without ground in nature, there was much to recommend
its adoption. And further, the week is a most natural and
nearly an exact quadri-partition of the month, so that the
quarters of the moon may easily have suggested it. It is clear
that if not in Paul's time, yet very soon after, the whole
Roman world had adopted the hebdomadal division. Weeks, Feast
of. [[1285]Pentecost]
Weights And Measures
A. WEIGHTS.--The general principle of the present inquiry is to
give the evidence of the monuments the preference on all
doubtful points. All ancient Greek systems of weight were
derived, either directly or indirectly, from an eastern source.
The older systems of ancient Greece and Persia were the
AEginetan, the Attic, the Babylonian and the Euboic.
+ The AEginetan talent is stated to have contained 60 minae,
6000 drachme.
+ The Attic talent is the standard weight introduced by Solon.
+ The Babylonian talent may be determined from existing weights
found by. Mr. Layard at Nineveh. Pollux makes it equal to
7000 Attic drachms.
+ The Euboic talent though bearing a Greek name, is rightly
held to have been originally an eastern system. The
proportion of the Euboic talent to the Babylonian was
probably as 60 to 72, or 5 to
+ Taking the Babylonian maneh at 7992 grs., we obtain 399,600
for the Euboic talent. The principal if not the only Persian
gold coin is the daric, weighing about 129 grs.
+ The Hebrew talent or talents and divisions. A talent of
silver is mentioned in Exodus, which contained 3000 shekels,
distinguished as "the holy shekel," or "shekel of the
sanctuary." The gold talent contained 100 manehs, 10,000
shekels. The silver talent contained 3000 shekels, 6000
bekas, 60,000 gerahs. The significations of the names of the
Hebrew weights must be here stated. The chief unit was the
[1286]Shekel (i.e. weight), called also the holy shekel or
shekel of the sanctuary ; subdivided into the beka (i.e.
half) or half-shekel, and the gerah (i.e. a grain or beka).
The chief multiple, or higher unit, was the kikkar (i.e.
circle or globe, probably for an aggregate sum), translated
in our version, after the LXX., [1287]Talent; (i.e. part,
portion or number), a word used in Babylonian and in the
Greek hena or mina . (1) The relations of these weights, as
usually: employed for the standard of weighing silver, and
their absolute values, determined from the extant silver
coins, and confirmed from other sources, were as follows, in
grains exactly and in avoirdupois weight approximately: (2)
For gold a different shekel was used, probably of foreign
introduction. Its value has been calculated at from 129 to
132 grains. The former value assimilates it to the Persian
daric of the Babylonian standard. The talent of this system
was just double that of the silver standard; if was divided
into 100 manehs, and each maneh into 100 shekels, as follows:
(3) There appears to have been a third standard for copper,
namely, a shekel four times as heavy as the gold shekel (or
528 grains), 1500 of which made up the copper talent of
792,000 grains. It seems to have been subdivided, in the
coinage, into halves (of 264 grains), quarters (of 132
grains) and sixths (of 88 grains). B. [1288]Measures.-- I.
[1289]Measures OF LENGTH.--In the Hebrew, as in every other
system, these measures are of two classes: length, in the
ordinary sense, for objects whose size we wish to determine,
and distance, or itinerary measures, and the two are
connected by some definite relation, more or less simple,
between their units. The measures of the former class have
been universally derived, in the first instance, from the
parts of the human body; but it is remarkable that, in the
Hebrew system, the only part used for this purpose is the
hand and fore-arm, to the exclusion of the foot, which was
the chief unit of the western nations. Hence arises the
difficulty of determining the ratio of the foot to the
[1290]Cubit, (The Hebrew word for the cubit (ammah) appears
to have been of Egyptian origin, as some of the measures of
capacity (the hin and ephah) certainly were.) which appears
as the chief Oriental unit from the very building of Noah's
ark. (Genesis 6:15,16; 7:20) The Hebrew lesser measures were
the finger's breadth, (Jeremiah 52:21) only; the palm or
handbreadth, (Exodus 25:25; 1 Kings 7:26; 2 Chronicles 4:5)
used metaphorically in (Psalms 39:5) the span, i.e. the full
stretch between the tips of the thumb and the little finger.
(Exodus 28:16; 1 Samuel 17:4; Ezekiel 43:13) and figuratively
(Isaiah 40:12) The data for determining the actual length of
the Mosaic cubit involve peculiar difficulties, and absolute
certainty seems unattainable. The following, however, seem
the most probable conclusions: First, that three cubits were
used in the times of the Hebrew monarchy, namely : (1) The
cubit of a man, (3:11) or the common cubit of Canaan (in
contradistinction to the Mosaic cubit) of the Chaldean
standard; (2) The old Mosaic or legal cubit, a handbreadth
larger than the first, and agreeing with the smaller Egyptian
cubit; (3) The new cubit, which was still larger, and agreed
with the larger Egyptian cubit, of about 20.8 inches, used in
the Nilometer. Second, that the ordinary cubit of the Bible
did not come up to the full length of the cubit of other
countries. The reed (kaneh), for measuring buildings (like
the Roman decempeda), was to 6 cubits. It occurs only in
Ezekiel (Ezekiel 40:5-8; 41:8; 42:16-29) The values given In
the following table are to be accepted with reservation, for
want of greater certainty:
+ Of measures of distance the smallest is the pace, and the
largest the day's journey . (a) The pace, (2 Samuel 6:13)
whether it be a single, like our pace, or double, like the
Latin passus, is defined by nature within certain limits, its
usual length being about 30 inches for the former and 5 feet
for the latter. There is some reason to suppose that even
before the Roman measurement of the roads of Palestine, the
Jews had a mile of 1000 paces, alluded to in (Matthew 5:41)
It is said to have been single or double, according to the
length of the pace; and hence the peculiar force of our
Lord's saying: "Whosoever shall compel thee [as a courier] to
go a mile, go with him twain"--put the most liberal
construction on the demand. (b) The day's journey was the
most usual method of calculating distances in travelling,
(Genesis 30:36; 31:23; Exodus 3:18; 5:3; Numbers 10:33;
11:31; 33:8; 1:2; 1 Kings 19:4; 2 Kings 3:9; Jonah 3:3) 1
Macc. 5:24; 7:45; Tobit 6:1, though but one instance of it
occurs in the New Testament (Luke 2:44) The ordinary day's
journey among the Jews was 30 miles; but when they travelled
in companies, only ten miles. Neapolis formed the first stage
out of Jerusalem according to the former and Beeroth
according to the latter computation, (a) The Sabbath day's
journey of 2000 cubits, (Acts 1:12) is peculiar to the New
Testament, and arose from a rabbinical restriction. It was
founded on a universal, application of the prohibition given
by Moses for a special occasion: "Let no man go out of his
place on the seventh day." (Exodus 16:29) An exception was
allowed for the purpose of worshipping at the tabernacle;
and, as 2000 cubits was the prescribed space to be kept
between the ark and the people as well as the extent of the
suburbs of the Levitical cities on every side, (Numbers 35:5)
this was taken for the length of a Sabbath-day's journey
measured front the wall of the city in which the traveller
lived. Computed from the value given above for the cubit, the
Sabbath-day's journey would be just six tenths of a mile .
(d) After the captivity the relations of the Jews to the
Persians, Greeks and Romans caused the use, probably, of the
parasang, and certainly of the stadium and the mile . Though
the first is not mentioned in the Bible, if is well to
exhibit the ratios of the three. The universal Greek
standard, the stadium of 600 Greek feet, which was the length
of the race-course at Olympia, occurs first in the Maccabees,
and is common in the New Testament. Our version renders it
furlong ; it being, in fact, the eighth part of the Roman
mile, as the furlong is of ours. 2 Macc. 11:5; 12:9,17,29;
(Luke 24:13; John 6:19; 11:18; Revelation 14:20; 21:18) One
measure remains to be mentioned. The fathom, used in sounding
by the Alexandrian mariners in a voyage, is the Greek orguia,
i.e. the full stretch of the two arms from tip to tip of the
middle finger, which is about equal to the height, and in a
man of full stature is six feet. For estimating area, and
especially land there is no evidence that the Jews used any
special system of square measures but they were content to
express by the cubit the length and breadth of the surface to
be measured (Numbers 35:4,5; Ezekiel 40:27) or by the reed.
(Ezekiel 41:8; 42:16-19; Revelation 21:16) II. [1291]Measures
OF CAPACITY.--
+ The measures of capacity for liquids were: (a) The log,
(Leviticus 14:10) etc. The name originally signifying basin .
(b) The hin, a name of Egyptian origin, frequently noticed in
the Bible. (Exodus 29:40; 30:24; Numbers 15:4,7,8; Ezekiel
4:11) etc. (c) The bath, the name meaning "measured," the
largest of the liquid measures. (1 Kings 7:26,38; 2
Chronicles 2:10; Ezra 7:22; Isaiah 5:10)
+ The dry measure contained the following denominations: (a)
The cab, mentioned only in (2 Kings 6:25) the name meaning
literally hollow or concave . (b) The omer, mentioned only in
(Exodus 16:16-36) The word implies a heap, and secondarily a
sheaf. (c) The seah, or "measure," this being the
etymological meaning of the term and appropriately applied to
it, inasmuch as it was the ordinary measure for household
purposes. (Genesis 18:6; 1 Samuel 25:18; 2 Kings 7:1,16) The
Greek equivalent occurs in (Matthew 13:33; Luke 13:21) (d)
The ephah, a word of Egyptian origin and frequent recurrence
in the Bible. (Exodus 16:36; Leviticus 5:11; 6:20; Numbers
5:15; 28:5; Judges 6:19; Ruth 2:17; 1 Samuel 1:24; 17:17;
Ezekiel 45:11,13; 46:5,7,11,14) (e) The lethec, or "half
homer" literally meaning what is poured out; it occurs only
in (Hosea 3:2) (f) The homer, meaning heap. (Leviticus 27:16;
Numbers 11:32; Isaiah 5:10; Ezekiel 45:13) It is elsewhere
termed cor, from the circular vessel in which it was
measured. (1 Kings 4:22; 5:11; 2 Chronicles 2:10; 27:5; Ezra
7:22; Ezekiel 45:14) The Greek equivalent occurs in (Luke
16:7) The absolute values of the liquid and the dry measures
are stated differently by Josephus and the rabbinists, and as
we are unable to decide between them, we give a double
estimate to the various denominations. In the new Testament
we have notices of the following foreign measures: (a) The
metretes, (John 2:6) Authorized Version "firkin," for
liquids. (b) The choenix, (Revelation 6:6) Authorized Version
"measure," for dry goods. (c) The xestec, applied, however,
not to the peculiar measure so named by the Greeks, but to
any small vessel, such as a cup. (Mark 7:4,8) Authorized
Version "pot." (d) The modius, similarly applied to describe
any vessel of moderate dimensions, (Matthew 5:15; Mark 4:21;
Luke 11:33) Authorized Version "bushel," though properly
meaning a Roman measure, amounting to about a peck. The value
of the Attic metretes was 8.6696 gallons, and consequently
the amount of liquid in six stone jars, containing on the
average 2 1/2 metretae each, would exceed 110 gallons. (John
2:6) Very possibly, however, the Greek term represents the
Hebrew bath ; and if the bath be taken at the lowest estimate
assigned to it, the amount would be reduced to about 60
gallons. The choenix was 1-48th of an Attic medimnus, and
contained nearly a quart. It represented the amount of corn
for a day's food; and hence a choenix for a penny (or
denarius), which usually purchased a bushel (Cic. Verr. iii
81), indicated a great scarcity. (Revelation 6:6)
Well
Wells in Palestine are usually excavated from the solid
limestone rock, sometimes with steps to descend into them.
(Genesis 24:16) The brims are furnished with a curb or low wall
of stone, bearing marks of high antiquity in the furrows worn
by the ropes used in drawing water. It was on a curb of this
sort that our Lord sat when he conversed with the woman of
Samaria, (John 4:6) and it was this, the usual stone cover,
which the woman placed on the mouth of the well at Bahurim, (2
Samuel 17:19) where the Authorized Version weakens the sense by
omitting the article. The usual methods for raising water are
the following:
+ The rope and bucket, or waterskin. (Genesis 24:14-20; John
4:11)
+ The sakiyeh, or Persian wheel. This consists of a vertical
wheel furnished with a set of buckets or earthen jars
attached to a cord passing over the wheel. which descend
empty and return full as the wheel revolves.
+ A modification of the last method, by which a man, sitting
opposite to a wheel furnished with buckets, turns it by
drawing with his hands one set of spokes prolonged beyond its
circumference, and pushing another set from him with his
feet.
+ A method very common in both ancient and modern Egypt is the
shadoof, a simple contrivance consisting of a lever moving on
a pivot, which is loaded at one end with a lump of clay or
some other weight, and has at the other a bowl or bucket.
Wells are usually furnished with troughs of wood or stone
into which the water is emptied for the use of persons or
animals coming to the wells. Unless machinery is used, which
is commonly worked by men, women are usually the
water-carriers.
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Whale
As to the signification of the Hebrew terms tan and tannin,
variously rendered in the Authorized Version by "dragon,"
"whale," "serpent," "sea-monster" see [1292]Dragon. It remains
for us in this article to consider the transaction recorded in
the book of Jonah, of that prophet having been swallowed up by
some great fish" which in (Matthew 12:40) is called cetos
(ketos), rendered in our version by "whale." In the first
glace, it is necessary to observe that the Greek word cetos,
used by St. Matthew is not restricted in its meaning to "a
whale," or any Cetacean ; like the Latin cete or cetus, it may
denote any sea-monster, either "a whale," Or "a shark," or "a
seal," or "a tunny of enormous size." Although two or three
species of whale are found in the Mediterranean Sea, yet the
"great fish" that swallowed the prophet cannot properly be
identified with any Cetacean, for, although the sperm whale has
a gullet sufficiently large to admit the body of a man, yet, it
can hardly be the fish intended, as the natural food of
Cetaceans consists of small animals,such as medusae and
crustacea. The only fish, then, capable of swallowing a man
would be a large specimen of the white shark (Carcharias
vulgaris), that dreaded enemy of sailors, and the most
voracious of the family of Squalidae . This shark, which
sometimes attains the length of thirty feet, is quite able to
swallow a man whole. The whole body of a man in armor has been
found in the stomach of a white shark: and Captain King, in his
survey of Australia, says he had caught one which could have
swallowed a man with the greatest ease. Blumenbach mentions
that a whole horse has' been found in a shark, and Captain
Basil Hall reports the taking of one in which, besides other
things, he found the whole skin of a buffalo which a short time
before had been thrown overboard from his ship (p. 27). The
white shark is not uncommon in the Mediterranean.
Wheat
the well-known valuable cereal, cultivated from the earliest
times, is first mentioned in ((Genesis 30:14) in the account of
Jacob's sojourn with Laban in Mesopotamia. Egypt in ancient
times was celebrated for the growth of its wheat; the best
quality was all bearded; and the same varieties existed in
ancient as in modern times, among which may be mentioned the
seven-eared quality described in Pharaoh's dream. (Genesis
41:22) Babylonia was also noted for the excellence of its wheat
and other cereals. Syria and Palestine produced wheat of fine
quality and in large quantities. (Psalms 81:16; 147:14) etc.
There appear to be two or three kinds of wheat at present grown
in Palestine, the Triticum vulgare, the T. spelta, and another
variety of bearded wheat which appears to be the same as the
Egyptian kind, the T. compositum . In the parable of the sower
our Lord alludes to grains of wheat which in good ground
produce a hundred-fold. (Matthew 13:8) The common Triticum
vulgare will sometimes produce one hundred grains in the ear.
Wheat is reaped to ward the end of April, in May, and in June,
according to the differences of soil and position; it was sown
either broadcast and then ploughed in or trampled in by cattle,
(Isaiah 32:20) or in rows, if we rightly understand (Isaiah
28:25) which seems to imply that the seeds were planted apart
in order to insure larger and fuller ears. The wheat was put
into the ground in the winter, and some time after the barley;
in the Egyptian plague of hail, consequently, the barley
suffered, but the wheat had not appeared, and so escaped
injury.
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Table of Contents
Widow
Under the Mosaic dispensation no legal provision was made for
the maintenance of widows. They were left dependent partly on
the affection of relations, more especially of the eldest son,
whose birthright, or extra share of the property, imposed such
a duty upon him, and partly on the privileges accorded to other
distressed classes, such as a participation in the triennial
third tithe, (14:29; 26:12) in leasing, (24:19-21) and in
religious feasts. (16:11,14) With regard to the remarriage of
widows, the only restriction imposed by the Mosaic law had
reference to the contingency of one being left childless in
which case the brother of the deceased husband had a right to
marry the widow. (25:5,6; Matthew 22:23-30) In the apostolic
Church the widows were sustained at the public expense, the
relief being daily administered in kind, under the
superintendence of officers appointed for this special purpose,
(Acts 6:1-6) Particular directions are given by St.Paul as to
the class of persons entitled to such public maintenance. (1
Timothy 5:3-16) Out of the body of such widows a certain number
were to be enrolled, the qualifications for such enrollment
being that they were not under sixty years of age; that they
had been "the wife of one man," probably meaning but once
married ; and that they had led useful and charitable lives.
vs. (1 Timothy 5:9,10) We are not disposed to identify the
widows of the Bible either with the deaconesses or with the
presbutides Of the early Church. The order of widows existed as
a separate institution, contemporaneously with these offices,
apparently for the same eleemosynary purpose for which it was
originally instituted.
Wife
[[1293]Marriage]
Wilderness Of The Wandering
(The region in which the Israelites spent nearly 38 years of
their existence after they had left Egypt, and spent a year
before Mount Sinai. They went as far as Kadesh, on the
southernmost border of Palestine, from which place spies were
sent up into the promised land. These returned with such a
report of the inhabitants and their walled cities that the
people were discouraged, and began to murmur and rebel. For
their sin they were compelled to remain 38 years longer in the
wilderness, because it showed that they were not yet prepared
and trained to conquer and to hold their promised possessions.
The wilderness of the wandering was the great central limestone
plateau of the sinaitic peninsula. It was bordered on the east
by the valley of the Arabah, which runs from the Dead Sea to
the head of the eastern branch of the Red Sea. On the south and
south west were the granite mountains of Sinai and on the north
the Mediterranean Sea and the mountainous region south of
Judea. It is called the Desert of Paran, and Badiet et-Tih,
which means "Desert of the Wandering." The children of Israel
were not probably marching as a nation from place to place in
this wilder new during these 38 years, but they probably had a
kind of headquarters at Kadesh, and were "compelled to linger
on as do the Bedouin Arabs of the present day, in a
half-savage, homeless state, moving about from place to place,
and pitching their tents wherever they could find pasture for
their flocks and herds."--E.H. Palmer. Toward the close of the
forty years from Egypt they again assembled at Kadesh, and,
once more under the leadership of the Shechinah, they marched
down the Arabah on their way to the promised land.--ED.)
Willows
are mentioned in (Leviticus 23:40; Job 40:22; Psalms 137:2;
Isaiah 44:4) With respect to the tree upon which the captive
Israelites hung their harps, there can be no doubt that the
weeping willow Salix babylonica, is intended. This tree grows
abundantly on the banks of the Euphrates, in other parts of
Asia as in Palestine. The Hebrew word translated willows is
generic, and includes several species of the large family of
Salices, which is well represented in Palestine and the Bible
lands, such as the Salix alba, S. viminalis (osier), S.
aegyptiaca .
Willows, The Brook Of The
a wady mentioned by Isaiah, (Isaiah 15:7) in his dirge over
Moab. It is situated on the southern boundary of Moab, and is
now called Wady el-Aksa.
Wills
Under a system of close inheritance like that of the Jews, the
scope forbid bequest in respect of land was limited by the
right of redemption and general re-entry in the jubilee year;
but the law does not forbid bequests by will of such limited
interest in land as was consistent with those rights. The case
of houses in walled towns was different, and there can be no
doubt that they must, in fact, have frequently been bequeathed
by will, (Leviticus 25:30) Two instances are recorded in the
Old Testament under the law of the testamentary disposition,
(1) effected in the case of Ahithophel, (2 Samuel 17:23) (2)
recommended in the case of Hezekiah. (2 Kings 20:1; Isaiah
38:1) [[1294]Heir]
Wimple
an old English word for hood or veil, used in the Authorized
Version of (Isaiah 3:22) The same Hebrew word is translated
"veil" in (Ruth 3:15) but it signifies rather a kind of shawl
of mantle.
Window
The window of an Oriental house consists generally of an
aperture closed in with lattice-work. (Judges 5:28; Proverbs
7:6) Authorized Version "casement;" (Ecclesiastes 12:3)
Authorized Version "window;" (Song of Solomon 2:9; Hosea 13:3)
Authorized Version "chimney." Glass has been introduced into
Egypt in modern times as a protection against the cold of
winter, but lattice-work is still the usual, and with the poor
the only, contrivance for closing the window. The windows
generally look into the inner court of the house, but in every
house one or more look into the street. In Egypt these outer
windows generally project over the doorway. [[1295]House]
Winds
That the Hebrews recognized the existence of four prevailing
winds as issuing, broadly speaking, from the four cardinal
points, north, south, east and west, may be inferred from their
custom of using the expression "four winds" as equivalent to
the "four quarters" of the hemisphere. (Ezekiel 37:9; Daniel
8:8; Zechariah 2:6; Matthew 24:31) The north wind, or, as it
was usually called "the north," was naturally the coldest of
the four, Ecclus. 43:20 and its presence is hence invoked as
favorable to vegetation in (Song of Solomon 4:16) It is
described in (Proverbs 25:23) as bringing rain; in this case we
must understand the northwest wind. The northwest wind prevails
from the autumnal equinox to the beginning of November, and the
north wind from June to the equinox. The east wind crosses the
sandy wastes of Arabia Deserts before reaching Palestine and
was hence termed "the wind of the wilderness." (Job 1:19;
Jeremiah 13:14) It blows with violence, and is hence supposed
to be used generally for any violent wind. (Job 27:21; 38:24;
Psalms 48:7; Isaiah 27:8; Ezekiel 27:26) In Palestine the east
wind prevails from February to June. The south wind, which
traverses the Arabian peninsula before reaching Palestine, must
necessarily be extremely hot. (Job 37:17; Luke 12:55) The west
and southwest winds reach Palestine loaded with moisture
gathered from the Mediterranean, and are hence expressly termed
by the Arabs "the fathers of the rain." Westerly winds prevail
in Palestine from November to February. In addition to the four
regular winds, we have notice in the Bible of the local
squalls, (Mark 4:37; Luke 8:23) to which the Sea of Gennesareth
was liable. In the narrative of St. Paul's voyage we meet with
the Greek term Lips to describe the southwest wind; the Latin
Carus or Caurus, the northwest wind (Acts 27:12) and
Euroclydon, a wind of a very violent character coming from
east-northeast. (Acts 27:14)
Wine
The manufacture of wine is carried back in the Bible to the age
of Noah, (Genesis 9:20,21) to whom the discovery of the process
is apparently, though not explicitly, attributed. The natural
history and culture of the vine are described under a separate
head. [[1296]Vine] The only other plant whose fruit is noticed
as having been converted into wine was the pomegranate. (Song
of Solomon 8:2) In Palestine the vintage takes place in
September, and is celebrated with great rejoicing. The ripe
fruit was gathered in baskets, (Jeremiah 6:9) as represented in
Egyptian paintings, and was carried to the wine-press. It was
then placed in the upper one of the two vats or receptacles of
which the winepress was formed, and was subjected to the
process of "treading," which has prevailed in all ages in
Oriental and south European countries. (Nehemiah 13:15; Job
24:11; Isaiah 18:10; Jeremiah 25:30; 48:33; Amos 9:13;
Revelation 19:15) A certain amount of juice exuded front the
ripe fruit from its own pressure before treading commenced.
This appears to have been kept separate from the rest of the
juice, and to have formed the "sweet wine" noticed in (Acts
2:13) [See below] The "treading" was effected by one or more
men, according to the size of the vat. They encouraged one
another by shouts. (Isaiah 16:9,10; Jeremiah 25:30; 48:33)
Their legs and garments were dyed red with the juice. (Genesis
40:11; Isaiah 63:2,3) The expressed juice escaped by an
aperture into the lower vat, or was at once collected in
vessels. A hand-press was occasionally used in Egypt, but we
have no notice of such an instrument in the Bible. As to the
subsequent treatment of the wine we have but little
information. Sometimes it was preserved in its unfermented
state and drunk as must, but more generally it was bottled off
after fermentation and if it were designed to be kept for some
time a certain amount of lees was added to give it body.
(Isaiah 25:6) The wine consequently required to be "refined" or
strained previous to being brought to table. (Isaiah 25:6) To
wine, is attributed the "darkly-flashing eye," (Genesis 40:12)
Authorized Version "red," the unbridled tongue, (Proverbs 20:1;
Isaiah 28:7) the excitement of the spirit, (Proverbs 31:6;
Isaiah 5:11; Zechariah 9:15; 10:7) the enchained affections of
its votaries, (Hosea 4:11) the perverted judgment, (Proverbs
31:5; Isaiah 28:7) the indecent exposure, (Habakkuk 2:15,16)
and the sickness resulting from the heat (chemah, Authorized
Version "bottles") of wine. (Hosea 7:5) The allusions to the
effects of tirosh are confined to a single passage, but this a
most decisive one, viz. (Hosea 4:11) "Whoredom and wine (yayin)
and new wine (tirosh) take away the heart," where tirosh
appears as the climax of engrossing influences, in immediate
connection with yayin . It has been disputed whether the Hebrew
wine was fermented; but the impression produced on the mind by
a general review of the above notices is that the Hebrew words
indicating wine refer to fermented, intoxicating wine. The
notices of fermentation are not very decisive. A certain amount
of fermentation is implied in the distension of the leather
bottles when new wine was placed in them, and which was liable
to burst old bottles. It is very likely that new wine was
preserved in the state of must by placing it in jars or bottles
and then burying it in the earth. The mingling that we read of
in conjunction with wine may have been designed either to
increase or to diminish the strength of the wine, according as
spices or water formed the ingredient that was added. The
notices chiefly favor the former view; for mingled liquor was
prepared for high festivals, (Proverbs 9:2,5) and occasions of
excess. (Proverbs 23:30; Isaiah 5:22) At the same time strength
was not the sole object sought; the wine "mingled with myrrh,"
given to Jesus, was designed to deaden pain, (Mark 15:23) and
the spiced pomegranate wine prepared by the bride, (Song of
Solomon 8:2) may well have been of a mild character. In the New
Testament the character of the "sweet wine," noticed in (Acts
2:13) calls for some little remark. It could not be new wine in
the proper sense of the term, inasmuch as about eight months
must have elapsed between the vintage and the feast of
Pentecost. The explanations of the ancient lexicographers
rather lead us to infer that its luscious qualities were due,
not to its being recently made, but to its being produced from
the very purest juice of the grape. There can be little doubt
that the wines of palestine varied in quality, and were named
after the localities in which they were made. The only wines of
which we have special notice belonged to Syria these were the
wine of Helbon (Ezekiel 27:18) and the wine of Lebanon, famed
for its aroma. (Hosea 14:7) With regard to the uses of wine in
private life there is little to remark. It was produced on
occasions of ordinary hospitality, (Genesis 14:18) and at
festivals, such as marriages. (John 2:3) Under the Mosaic law
wine formed the usual drink offering that accompanied the daily
sacrifice, (Exodus 29:40) the presentation of the first-fruits,
(Leviticus 23:13) and other offerings. (Numbers 15:5) Tithe was
to be paid of wine, as of other products. The priest was also
to receive first-fruits of wine, as of other articles. (18:4)
comp. (Exodus 22:29) The use of wine at the paschal feast was
not enjoined by the law, but had become an established custom,
at all events in the post-Babylonian period. The wine was mixed
with warm water on these occasions. Hence in the early
Christian Church it was usual to mix the sacramental wine with
water. (The simple wines of antiquity were incomparably less
deadly than the stupefying and ardent beverages of our western
nations. The wines of antiquity were more like sirups; many of
them were not intoxicant; many more intoxicant in a small
degree; and all of them, as a rule, taken only when largely
diluted with water. They contained, even undiluted, but 4 or 5
percent of alcohol.--Cannon Farrar.)
Winepress
From the scanty notices contained in the Bible we gather that,
the wine-presses of the Jews consisted of two receptacles of
vats placed at different elevations, in the upper one of which
the grapes were trodden, while the lower one received the
expressed juice. The two vats are mentioned together only in
(Joel 3:13) "The press is full: the fats overflow"--the upper
vat being full of fruit, the lower one overflowing with the
must. [[1297]Wine] The two vats were usually hewn out of the
solid rock. (Isaiah 5:2) margin; (Matthew 21:33) Ancient
winepresses, so constructed, are still to he seen in Palestine.
Winnowing
[[1298]Agriculture]
Wisdom Of Jesus, Son Of Sirach
[[1299]Ecclesiasticus]
Wisdom, The, Of Solomon
a, book of the Apocrypha, may be divided into two parts, the
first, chs. 1-9, containing the doctrine of wisdom in its moral
and intellectual aspects: the second, the doctrine of wisdom as
shown in history. chs. 10-19. The first part contains the
praise of wisdom as the source of immortality, in contrast with
the teaching of sensualists; and next the praise of wisdom as
the guide of practical and intellectual life, the stay of
princes, and the interpreter of the universe. The second part,
again, follows the action of wisdom summarily, as preserving
God's servants, from Adam to Moses, and more particularly in
the punishment of the Egyptians and Canaanites. Style and
language .--The literary character of the book is most
remarkable and interesting. In the richness and freedom of its
vocabulary it most closely resembles the Fourth Book of
Maccabees, but it is superior to that fine declamation in both
power and variety of diction. The magnificent description of
wisdom ch. 7:22-8:1, must rank among the noblest passages of
human eloquence, and it would be perhaps impossible to point
out any piece of equal length in the remains of classical
antiquity more pregnant with noble thought or more rich in
expressive phraseology. Doctrinal character.--The theological
teaching of the book offers, in many respects, the nearest
approach to the language and doctrines of Greek philosophy that
is found in any Jewish writing up to the time of Philo. There
is much in the views which it gives of the world of man and of
the divine nature which springs rather from the combination or
conflict of Hebrew and Greek thought than from the independent
development of Hebrew thought alone. The conception is
presented of the body as a mere weight and clog to the soul.
ch, 9:15; contrast (2 Corinthians 5:1-4) There is, on the other
hand no trace of the characteristic Christian doctrine of a
resurrection of the body. The identification of the tempter,
(Genesis 3:1) ... directly or indirectly with the devil, as the
bringer "of death into the world" ch. 2:23, 24, is the most
remarkable development of biblical doctrine which the book
contains. Generally, too, it may be observed that, as in the
cognate books, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, there are few traces
of the recognition of the sinfulness even of the wise man in
his wisdom, which forms in the Psalms and the prophets, the
basis of the Christian doctrine of the atonement: yet comp.
(Genesis 15:2) In connection with the Old Testament Scriptures,
the book, as a whole, may be regarded as carrying on one step
farther the great problem of life contained in Ecclesiastes and
Job. Date.--From internal evidence it seems most reasonable to
believe that the work was composed in Greek at Alexandria some
time before the time of Philo-about 120-80 B.C. It seems
impossible to study this book dispassionately and not feel that
it forms one of the last links in the chain of providential
connection between the Old and New Covenants. It would not be
easy to find elsewhere any pre-Christian view of religion
equally wide, sustained and definite.
Wise Men
[[1300]Magi]
Witch, Witchcrafts
[[1301]Divination; [1302]Magic, Magicians]
Witness
Among people with whom writing is not common the evidence of a
transaction is given by some tangible memorial or significant
ceremony: Abraham gave seven ewe-lambs to Abimelech as an
evidence of his property in the well of Beersheba. Jacob raised
a heap of stones, "the heap of witness." as a boundary-mark
between himself and Laban. (Genesis 21:30; 31:47,52) The tribes
of Reuben and Gad raised an "altar" as a witness to the
covenant between themselves and the rest of the nation. Joshua
set up a stone as an evidence of the allegiance promised by
Israel to God. (Joshua 22:10,26,34; 24:26,27) But written
evidence was by no means unknown to the Jews. Divorce was to be
proved by a written document. (24:1,3) In civil contracts, at
least in later times documentary evidence was required and
carefully preserved. (Isaiah 8:16; Jeremiah 32:10-16) On the
whole the law was very careful to provide and enforce evidence
for all its infractions and all transactions bearing on them.
Among special provisions with respect to evidence are the
following:
+ Two witnesses at least are required to establish any charge.
(Numbers 35:30; 17:6; John 8:17; 2 Corinthians 13:1) comp.
1Tim 5:19
+ In the case of the suspected wife, evidence besides the
husband's was desired. (Numbers 5:13)
+ The witness who withheld the truth was censured. (Leviticus
5:1)
+ False witness was punished with the penalty due to the
offence which it sought to establish.
+ Slanderous reports and officious witness are discouraged.
(Exodus 20:16; 23:1; Leviticus 18:16,18) etc.
+ The witnesses were the first executioners. (15:9; 17:7; Acts
7:58)
+ In case of an animal left in charge and torn by wild beasts,
the keeper was to bring the carcass in proof of the fact and
disproof of his own criminality. (Exodus 22:13)
+ According to Josephus, women and slaves were not admitted to
bear testimony. In the New Testament the original notion of a
witness is exhibited in the special form of one who attests
his belief in the gospel by personal suffering. Hence it is
that the use of the ecclesiastical term ("martyr." the Greek
word for "witness," has arisen.
Wizard
[[1303]Divination; [1304]Magic, Magicians]
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Wolf
There can be little doubt that the wolf of Palestine is the
common Canis lupus, and that this is the animal so frequently
mentioned in the Bible. (The wolf is a fierce animal of the
same species as the dog, which it resembles. The common color
is gray with a tinting of fawn, and the hair is long and black.
The Syrian wolf is of lighter color than the wolf of Europe it
is the dread of the shepherds of Palestine.--ED.) Wolves were
doubtless far more common in biblical times than they are now,
though they are occasionally seen by modern travellers. The
following are the scriptural allusions to the wolf: Its
ferocity is mentioned in (Genesis 49:27; Ezekiel 22:27); Habb
1:8; Matt 7:15 Its nocturnal habits, in (Jeremiah 5:6;
Zephaniah 3:3); Habb 1:8 Its attacking sheep and lambs,
(Matthew 10:16; Luke 10:3; John 10:12) Isaiah (Isaiah 11:6;
65:25) foretells the peaceful reign of the Messiah under the
metaphor of a wolf dwelling with a lamb: cruel persecutors are
compared with wolves. (Matthew 10:16; Acts 20:29)
Women
The position of women in the Hebrew commonwealth contrasts
favorably with that which in the present day is assigned to
them generally in eastern countries. The most salient point of
contrast in the usages of ancient as compared with modern
Oriental society was the large amount of liberty enjoyed by
women. Instead of being immured in a harem, or appearing in
public with the face covered. The wives and maidens of ancient
times mingled freely and openly with the other sex in the
duties and amenities of ordinary life. Rebekah travelled on a
camel with her face unveiled until she came into the presence
of her affianced. (Genesis 24:64,65) Jacob saluted Rachel with
a kiss in the presence of the shepherds. (Genesis 29:11) Women
played no inconsiderable part in public celebrations (Exodus
15:20,21; Judges 11:34) The odes of Deborah, Judg 5, and of
Hannah, (1 Samuel 2:1) etc., exhibit a degree of intellectual
cultivation which is in itself a proof of the position of the
sex in that period. Women also occasionally held public office,
particularly that of prophetess or inspired teacher. (Exodus
15:20; Judges 4:4; 2 Kings 22:14; Nehemiah 6:14; Luke 2:36) The
management of household affairs devolved mainly on the women.
The value of a virtuous and active housewife forms a frequent
topic in the book of Proverbs. ch. (Proverbs 11:16; 12:4; 14:1;
31:10) etc. Her influence was of course proportionably great.
Wood
[[1305]Forest]
Wool
was an article of the highest value among the Jews, as the
staple material for the manufacture of clothing. (Leviticus
13:47; 22:11; Job 31:20; Proverbs 31:13; Ezekiel 34:3; Hosea
2:5) The importance of wool is incidentally shown by the notice
that Mesha's tribute was paid in a certain number of rams "with
the wool." (2 Kings 3:1) The wool of Damascus was highly prized
in the mart of Tyre. (Ezekiel 27:18)
Worm
the representative in the Authorized Version of several Hebrew
words. Sas, which occurs in (Isaiah 51:18) probably denotes
some particular species of moth, whose larva is injurious to
wool. Rimmah, (Exodus 16:20) points evidently to various kinds
of maggots and the larvae of insects which feed on putrefying
animal matter, rather than to earthworms. Toleah is applied in
(28:39) to some kinds of larvae destructive to the vines. In
(Job 19:26; 21:26; 24:20) there is an allusion to worms (insect
larvae) feeding on the dead bodies of the buried. There is the
same allusion in (Isaiah 66:24) which words are applied by our
Lord, (Mark 9:44,46,48) metaphorically to the torments of the
guilty in the world of departed spirits. The valley of Hinnom
near Jerusalem, where the filth of the city was cast, was alive
with worms. The death of Herod Agrippa I, was caused by worms.
(Acts 12:23)
Wormwood
Four kinds of wormwood are found in Palestine-- Artemisia
nilotica, A. Judaica, A. fructicosa and A. cinerea . The word
occurs frequently in the Bible, and generally in a metaphorical
sense. In (Jeremiah 9:15; 23:15; Lamentations 3:15,19) wormwood
is symbolical of bitter calamity and sorrow; unrighteous judges
are said to "turn judgment to wormwood." (Amos 5:7) The
Orientals typified sorrows, cruelties and calamities of any
kind by plants of a poisonous or bitter nature.
Worshipper
a translation of the Greek word neocoros, used once only, (Acts
19:35) in the margin, "temple-keeper." The neocoros was
originally an attendant in a temple probably intrusted with its
charge. The term neocoros became thus applied to cities or
communities which undertook the worship of particular emperors
even during their lives. The first occurrence of the term in
connection with Ephesus is on coins of the age of Nero, A.D.
54-68.
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Wrestling
[[1306]Games]
Writing
There is no account in the Bible of the origin of writing. That
the Egyptians in the time of Joseph were acquainted with
writing of a certain kind there is evidence to prove, but there
is nothing to show that up to this period the knowledge
extended to the Hebrew family. At the same time there is no
evidence against it. Writing is first distinctly mentioned in
(Exodus 17:14) and the connection clearly implies that it was
not then employed for the first time but was so familiar as to
be used for historic records. It is not absolutely necessary to
infer from this that the art of writing was an accomplishment
possessed by every Hebrew citizen. If we examine the instances
in which writing is mentioned in connection with individuals,
we shall find that in all cases the writers were men of
superior position. In (Isaiah 29:11,12) there is clearly a
distinction drawn between the man who was able to read and the
man who was not, and it seems a natural inference that the
accomplishments of reading and writing were not widely spread
among the people, when we find that they are universally
attributed to those of high rank or education-kings, priests,
prophets and professional scribes. In the name Kirjathsepher
(book-town), (Joshua 15:15) there is an indication of a
knowledge of writing among the Phoenicians. The Hebrews, then,
a branch of the great Semitic family, being in possession of
the art of writing, according to their own historical records,
at a very early period, the further questions arise, what
character they made use of, and whence they obtained it. Recent
investigations have shown that the square Hebrew character is
of comparatively modern date, and has been formed from a more
ancient type by a gradual process of development. What then was
this ancient type? Most probably the Phoenician. Pliny was of
opinion that letters were of Assyrian origin. Dioderus Siculus
(v. 74) says that the Syrians invented letters, and from them
the Phoenicians, having learned them transferred them to the
Greeks. According to Tacitus (Ann. xi. 14,, Egypt was believed
to be the source whence the Phoenicians got their knowledge. Be
this as it may, to the Phoenicians, the daring seamen and
adventurous colonizers of the ancient world the voice of
tradition has assigned the honor of the invention of letters.
Whether it came to them from an Aramean or an Egyptian source
can at best he but the subject of conjecture. It may, however,
be reasonably inferred that the ancient Hebrews derived from or
shared with the Phoenicians the knowledge of writing and the
use of letters. The names of the Hebrew letters indicate that
they must have been the invention of a Shemitic people, and
that they were moreover a pastoral people may be inferred from
the same evidence. But whether or not the Phoenicians were the
inventors of the Shemitic alphabet, there can be no doubt of
their just claim to being its chief disseminators; and with
this understanding we may accept the genealogy of alphabets as
given by Gesenius, and exhibited in the accompanying table. The
old Semitic alphabets may he divided into two principal
classes:
+ The Phoenician as it exists in the inscriptions in Cyprus,
Malta, Carpentras, and the coins of Phoenicia and her
colonies. From it are derived the Samaritan and the Greek
character.
+ The Hebrew-Chaldee character; to which belong the Hebrew
square character; the which has some traces of a cursive
hand; the Estrangelo, or ancient Syriac; and the ancient
Arabic or Cufic. It was probably about the first or second
century after Christ that the square character assumed its
present form; though in a question involved in so much
uncertainty it is impossible to pronounce with great
positiveness. The alphabet .--The oldest evidence on the
subject of the Hebrew alphabet is derived from the
alphabetical psalms and poems: Psal 25,34,37,111,112,119,145;
(Proverbs 31:10-31; Lamentations 1:1-4) From these we
ascertain that the number of the letters was twenty-two, as
at present. The Arabic alphabet originally consisted of the
same number. It has been argued by many that the alphabet of
the Phoenicians at first consisted of only sixteen letters.
The legend, as told by Pliny (vii. 56), is as follows; Cadmus
brought with him into Greece sixteen letters; at the time of
the Trojan war Palamedes added four others, theta, epsilon,
phi, chi, and Simonides of Melos four more dzeta, eta, psi,
omega. Divisions of words.--Hebrew was originally written,
like most ancient languages, without any divisions between
the words. The same is the case with the Phoenician
inscriptions, The various readings in the LXX. show that, at
the version was made, in the Hebrew MSS. which the
translators used the words were written in a continuous
series. The modern synagogue rolls and the MSS. of the
Samaritan Pentateuch have no vowel-points, but the words are
divided, and the Samaritan in this respect differs hut little
from the Hebrew. Writing materials, etc.--The oldest
documents which contain the writing of a Semitic race are
probably the bricks of Nineveh and Babylon, on which are
impressed the cuneiform Syrian inscriptions. There is,
however, no evidence that they were ever used by the Hebrews.
It is highly probable that the ancient as well as the most
common material which the Hebrews used for writing was
dressed skin in some form or other. We know that the dressing
of skins was practiced by the Hebrews, (Exodus 25:5;
Leviticus 13:48) and they may have acquired the knowledge of
the art from the Egyptians, among whom if had attained great
perfection, the leather-cutters constituting one of the
principal subdivisions of the third caste. Perhaps the
Hebrews may have borrowed among their either acquirements,
the use of papyrus from the Egyptians, but of this we have no
positive evidence. In the Bible the only allusions to the use
of papyrus are in (2 John 1:12) where chartes (Authorized
Version "paper") occurs, which refers especially to papyrus
paper, and 3 Macc. 4:20, where charteria is found in the same
sense. Herodotus, after telling us that the Ionians learned
the art of writing from the Phoenicians, adds that they
called their books skins, because they made use of
sheep-skins and goat-skins when short of paper. Parchment was
used for the MSS. of the Pentateuch in the time of Josephus,
and the membranae of (2 Timothy 4:13) were skins of
parchment. It was one of the provisions in the Talmud that
the law should be written on the skins of clean animals, tame
or wild, or even of clean birds. The skins when written upon
were formed into rolls (megilloth). (Psalms 40:7) comp. Isai
34:4; Jere 36:14; Ezek 2:9; Zech 5:1 They were rolled upon
one or two sticks and fastened with a thread, the ends of
which were sealed. (Isaiah 29:11; Daniel 12:4; Revelation
5:1) etc. The rolls were generally written on one side only,
except in (Ezekiel 2:9; Revelation 5:1) They were divided
into columns (Authorized Version "leaves,") (Jeremiah 36:23)
the upper margin was to be not less than three fingers broad,
the lower not less than four; and a space of two fingers
breadth was to be left between every two columns. But besides
skins, which were used for the more permanent kinds of
writing, tablets of wood covered with wax, (Luke 11:63)
served for the ordinary purposes of life. Several of these
were fastened together and formed volumes. They were written
upon with a pointed style, (Job 19:24) sometimes of iron.
(Psalms 45:1; Jeremiah 8:8; 17:1) For harder materials a
graver, (Exodus 32:4; Isaiah 8:1) was employed. For parchment
or skins a reed was used. (3 John 1:13) 3 Macc. 5:20. The
ink, (Jeremiah 36:18) literally "black," like the Greek
melan, (2 Corinthians 3:3; 2 John 1:12; 3 John 1:13) was of
lampblack dissolved in gall-juice. It was carried in an
inkstand which was suspended at the girdle, (Ezekiel 9:2,3)
as is done at the present day in the East. To professional
scribes there are allusions in (Ezra 7:8; Psalms 45:1) 2
Esdr. 14:24.